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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: Okay.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: So, as I mentioned, we have Professor Ruth Wood with us today. She is a senior lecturer in environmental environment and climate change, and a research fellow with the Tyndall Center for climate change research and the center for climate and social transformations.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: Her research interests include the relationship between 0 Carbon Society and infrastructure and its effect on demand, justice and resilience to future climate change impacts.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: She was a lead author for the Uk. Climate change, risk assessment, technical reports in 2022 and part of the climate services for a net 0 resilient world. Now, consortium to inform Uk climate policy.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: So with that, Ruth. If you're ready, I'd love to hand over to you, and we really look forward to your talk.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Thank you very much, Hannah. Thank you very much, everybody. I'm really

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: it's a pleasure to be here. Thank you very much for the invitation to talk to you today. So I'm going to give you a run through of the background, the climate emergency.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: just try and get my slides to move forward and the global targets that have been set, the challenges of meeting those global targets where we're at at the moment and the consequences of our failure so far to mitigate sufficiently to avoid dangerous climate change. And what that holds for the future.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So just to give you a little bit more background to the climate emergency where we're at at the moment. So, as you'll all be aware, the earth's climate is driven primarily by energy from the sun and the way that that energy from the sun moves in and out of our atmosphere, mediated in part by the surface albedo, but also the greenhouse effect.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So the electromagnetic radiation is passing through the earth's atmosphere when it's reflected. Some of that infrared radiation is then trapped by a number of gases to create what's known as a greenhouse effect. And that way that heat moves around the atmosphere and oceans is mediated then by wind and ocean currents, and that really gives us the distribution of different climatic zones that you'll see around the world today.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So greenhouse gases.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: gases absorbing in the infrared spectrum or heat effectively. And there are lots of gases in the atmosphere that do that. They include water vapor, carbon, dioxide, ozone, methane as well as the gases you'll be familiar with from the Kyoto protocol, nitrous oxide hfcs. Sf, 6.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: And they give us that

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: that increase in surface temperature that we wouldn't have without them being there. A mean increase around 33 degrees centigrade. On average.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: the greenhouse gases which we're particularly interested in and particularly focusing on mitigating are those controlled under the Kyoto protocol, and they're primarily there because they both absorbing the Ir spectra, but also that they have a long lifetime

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: in the atmosphere. So carbon dioxide is one. Everybody's be familiar with. That lasts between tens to thousands of years, and I'll come back to that point later about why it differs methane.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: arising primarily from

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: anaerobic digestion, so that might be decomposition in landfill sites, in paddy fields, in agriculture production. It's also released as a byproduct in the oil and gas industry through leakage. Nitrous oxide lasts for 121 years, primarily primary sources from agriculture. And then we've got hydrofluorocarbons

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: depending on the species can last from days to hundreds of years in the atmosphere, and our perfluorocarbons, Pfcs. Which are much more stable, and will be in the atmosphere for thousands of years. Once we put them up there

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and finally sulphur hexafluoride and used a lot in the electrical industry 3,200 years. So once they're up there. They stay there for a very long time, and

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: contributed to that warming effect.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: The figure here just shows you the breakdown of those greenhouse gases, and how they make up total greenhouse gases emitted globally over time. It's dominated by carbon dioxide with methane as the next biggest source and nitrous oxide fine, and to finish it off. Nitrous oxide has

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: increase from the 19 forties onwards, but it's quite stable, and you can see.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: as a proportion Co. 2 has remained pretty dominant throughout history. If we look at where they come from, those gases around 73% of greenhouse gases come from energy use. So that's a combination of energies in industry to make iron and steel

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: road transport, heating in buildings, electricity production for everything that we we rely upon so much in our day to day lives. Aviation and shipping are really important sources, and they're in there, too, in that balance. And the next main source is from agriculture, forestry and land use. So everything that's required to produce the food we eat.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and also the kind of how we use land.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: The challenge at the moment is deforestation. So when we're losing forests, we're losing the carbon that's stored in those forests. And that's 1 of the significant contributors to global greenhouse gases

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: where we look, then, of how they stack up over time.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Generally you can see upward trends over the last 30 years for all of those sources of gases, electricity and heat and transport have increased significantly, whereas others have stayed relatively stable. We've not seen massive decreases. The dips you see in this figure are

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: from the 2,008 financial crisis and the 2,020 covid pandemic.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: They are the only the biggest impact that we've seen in the last 30 years on to actually reduce global greenhouse gas emissions.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: We look, then, about where they come from around the world. It really depends how you allocate responsibility for emissions, whether you do that based on who is physically emitting those greenhouse gases, or whether you look at it from a view of consumption, whereby you look at who is consuming the goods and services

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: which have been generated using those greenhouse gases. So the figure here really shows you the 4

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: major blocks of countries in the world are responsible for 60% of global emissions. That's U.S.A, China, EU, 27 and India. And you can see their contribution to global greenhouse gases over the last 30 years as well

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: the solid line there is the territorial emissions. So those are the emissions which are physically produced in the boundaries, the geographical boundaries of that country, and the dotted line above that is based on consumption emissions per capita. So our consumption emissions are those carbon emissions embodied within the goods and services consumed by people within those countries

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: is America is at the top there

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: for both territorial and consumption emissions

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: declining but stabilizing EU. 27 shows pretty slow but steady reductions.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Its consumption emissions similar to the Us are much higher than its territorial emissions, and then China in the kind of the the reddy orange color there has been climbing steadily over the last 20 years, and it's

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: consumption emissions again much lower lower here than its territorial emissions, partly because China exports a lot of the Co. 2 in China is generated in the production of the goods and services that are consumed elsewhere in the world.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So thinking about, then

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: about the lifespan of Co. 2, so we took in the 1st slide. I mentioned that the different gases are kind of controlled because of their longevity in the atmosphere, as well as their warming.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Co. 2 has a range of how long an individual atom of Co. 2 lasts for a different time in the atmosphere. And that's because it's driven by the global carbon cycle. So the arrows here show you the different fluxes between

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: components of the carbon cycle. So we've got on the left hand side. We've got the anthropogenic refluxes. So these this is from burning coal oil gas reserves and releasing that Co. 2 into the atmosphere.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Along from that the orange arrow going upwards is land. Use change. So whenever you convert forestry to agriculture or agricultural land to development.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: they will be carbon emissions associated with that that lost storage.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So those are the 2 main fluxes going into the atmosphere, and then

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: as part of the natural cycles, some of that Co. 2 is taken up by land, so it's absorbed again by plants and trees. Some of it is absorbed by the oceans.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and then the rest of it stays in the atmosphere, so

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: that balance over time is leading to the amount that's left in the atmosphere is what we then experience in terms of those parts moving in the atmosphere. And this gives you kind of an indicator. This figure here gives you an indicator of the relative

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and sources, and sinks primarily of that carbon. So along the horizontal axis you'll see above the axis the positive fluxes into the carbon cycle from fossil and land use change, and below that horizontal axis is the sink, so the ocean sink, the land sink, and the atmosphere.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and whatever

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: the ocean and land can't take up is left in that atmosphere, and you can see those sinks. The ocean and land sinks have increased over time, so they have been kind of as we've been emitting more.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: There has been more Co 2 pooled into those sinks, but ultimately there's still too much

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: staying in the bath in the atmosphere. So we can think of the carbon cycle as kind of this Bath term analogy. When the

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: if you think of a bath filling up. We've got our sources of carbon from fossil fuel, combustion and deforestation

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: running into the bath, and then our sinks of carbon and the drain. That and uptake the ocean uptake is what's taking it out. And your bath level is really depends on that balance between those 2 sources.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: And I find this. This is an interesting way of seeing over the last century or more how?

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Where everything's ended up. So the on the left hand side you'll see

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: the different sources of emissions or the contribution parts per 1 million to the atmosphere from coal, oil, gas, cement land, use change going up, and where it's all gone.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: And so the land sink includes forest. Our ocean sink.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Side effect of it, Co. 2. Being absorbed into the oceans is ocean acidification.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and then the side effect of the the atmosphere absorbing that extra Co 2 is effectively, climate is climate change and global warming.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: over time, we've seen this real steep increase in parts per 1 million of Co. 2 in the atmosphere resulting from

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: that disbalance between the emissions of Co. 2 and the the ability of our sinks to to absorb it.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: It's continuing to go up, and there's little. The kind of the red wiggly lines is the kind of the fluxes that you see in spring and autumn, as vegetation grows and then dies back in the autumn.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: so that that relationship between emitted carbon

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and what we see in the atmosphere.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: is what we then use to try and understand how climate change and the types of weather we might experience in the future relates to that amount of Co. 2. So the climate responds to what we call cumulative emissions. So all that carbon that's emitted and isn't being stored is accumulating up there. We have these accumulative emissions that have been up there for the last century

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and are growing every year. We add more and more Co. 2 to the atmosphere, and the figure here shows you the relationship between the cumulative total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions from 1870

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: against the temperature anomaly relative to 1861 to 1880, the pre-industrial times. So it's a pretty

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: linear relationship. And the black dotted line, the black line, there is actual emissions, historical emissions and the different coloured lines. There are scenarios of where future emissions might go to.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and you can see that when cumulative emissions get somewhere between 501,000

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Co. 2 emissions in gigatons

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: that leads to warming around one and a half degrees global warming level. And then 2 degrees is a little bit above that. So depending on which scenario you use, and which level of uncertainty you're

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: you're comfortable with using for your modeling the

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: we need to stay within. If you draw a line up from the 2 roughly 507, 50,

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and gigatons of carbon will get you hopefully to stabilize and avoid going over that critical threshold of one and a half and 2 degrees. So those cumulative emissions are really important to consider when we think about how quickly we decarbonize, and how we do it, because every ton of carbon counts, whether it's produced

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: now or in the future. And if we think about the embodied carbon. The carbon associated with the materials we use to build stuff. They are as important, even if what we're building is a renewable energy source. The embodied carbon that's used to create, it is still really important to consider.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So these pie charts here give you an idea of taking that that chart and putting it into some, some more

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: tangible numbers. To stay

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: to have a likelihood, 50% likelihood of remaining below one and a half degree. The carbon budget that we've already consumed is this 2, 6, 5 0 gigatons of Co. 2 over the last 100 years, and we've got 235 gigatons left

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: could be emitted globally before those models suggest that threshold will be breached.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: If we went slightly higher to trying to avoid 1.7 degrees, got 585 gigatons of Co. 2 remaining in our carbon budget. And so the budgets are like.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: yeah, the budgets keep us within our warming levels. If we want to stay below a certain warming level, we have to stop our cumulative emissions within that budget and to stay below 2 degrees. We've got about 1,000 gigatons left.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: And we compare that to the annual global emissions

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: that's kind of equivalent to 6, 14, and 27 years worth of global emissions. So that gives you an indication of how fast we need to get to 0

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: to avoid going over those temperature thresholds.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: moving on to those those global targets and what those those budgets mean? For how we go about mitigating emissions.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So at Paris, that was hailed as a success. And there was international agreement there to hold global temperatures increase to well below 2 degrees above pre-industrial levels and pursue efforts to limit it to one and a half degrees

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: below pre-industrial levels.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: And as you've seen from the previous budgets, that's quite challenging

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: to meet those budgets and stay within those budgets, we basically need to get that black line which is our measured emissions to follow the green line. If we want to avoid one and a half, the blue line for 1.7, and the red line for avoiding going above 2 degrees, so all of them require

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: rapid and urgent reduction in Co. 2 emissions.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: And if you see this 1.5, it's coming that getting to 0 is really coming. Well, before 2040, it's very, very rapid decline, and the types of

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: reductions in greenhouse gases we've seen historically haven't.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: with the kind of types of events that have led to those types of levels of decline have been things like covid global financial crisis dissolution of the Soviet Union. So this figure here shows you the annual changes in Global Co 2 emissions over time. And you see, primarily, they have been going up and up and up. And it's only during really global crises

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: we see a reduction.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: And we've got a massive rebound after the pandemic. You can see for 2021.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: It has come down a little bit, but we're still still going up. Those annual changes are still there. So if we really want to meet

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: those and

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: temperature limits, there's not a much of a positive precedent for delivering that scale of action. So if we want to deliver that scale of emission reduction, it really needs to be much more intentional, planned, and sustained to keep us on that downward trajectory.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: And we've we've not managed to do it so far at a global level, though individual countries have managed to do this.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: And there's a lot we can learn from them.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: You may also be aware that and

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: global average temperatures in 2024

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: were the warmest on record. So we went on about.

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Yash Pareek: High energy.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Degrees C above pre-industrial was recorded last year. So

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: we're very close to missing that one and a half degree target. I mean, you've seen the figures, and you can judge yourselves whether you think reaching those emission reduction levels is feasible.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So we have reached that 1.5 degree threshold for one year. In principle they haven't defined within Paris what counts as passing one and a half degrees, whether it needs to be sustained for a period of time. Generally, we think, about 20 to 30 years in climate scales.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So whether we it will be, it's kind of watching this space as to what this year's

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: temperature records will be like see whether that we we continue on that trend of of

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: breaching, breaching that one and a half degree threshold.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: delivery is a Paris agreement. So we Paris agreement set out these really aspirational targets for avoiding that 2 and a half degrees and one and a half degrees to deliver it. What they ask countries to do is that each every 5 years each country submits an

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: a climate action plan known as a nationally determined contribution, or Ndc. And in the Ndcs countries communicate actions they will take to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in order to reach the goals of the Paris agreement.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So they are led. But at country level it's up to individual countries about what contribution they are willing to make

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: to support the delivery of the Paris Agreement.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: The United Nations Environment Programme every year evaluates those Ndcs and the pledges that countries have made and evaluates whether or not they will get us to the Paris agreement. And what level of warming they'd lock us into. So their latest report showed. If

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: current policies, current decarbonisation policies across the world continue, there's a 66% chance. It's around. We get around 3.1

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: degrees of warming relative to pre-industrial.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: If countries also

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: deliver their unconditional Ndcs. So an unconditional skill they've not got, they said. They're going to do this without any strings attached. If those are delivered and get to 2.8 degrees.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: If the additional

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: conditional Ndcs are delivered where countries have put, I will only do this, if so, and so does this, or there's funding for this. If those are delivered, we get to 2.6 degrees.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: But if not only the conditional Ndcs at

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: are delivered, but also all the net 0

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: pledges around the world. Then it, their modelling suggests we could in principle get to stabilizing climate around 1.9 degrees, which which does breach 1.5, but does skim under that 2 degree threshold.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So there's a lot to get us from our current policies to the actual delivery of

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: the conditional Ndcs and all those net 0 pledges around the world.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: the yellow countries here have got a net 0 target in law.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: The green, the blue countries

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: have a net 0 target in their policies, but they haven't put it into on a legal footing yet, and the kind of the Orangey coloured countries

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: have a political pledge to deliver net 0. But again, they haven't put it into law yet. So it's really

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: in principle. If all these countries followed through. We have an awful lot of countries that have set up set themselves up to deliver net 0,

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and that should

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: should contribute, if they are all successful in delivering that to get us to that 1.9 degree threshold all. If if they deliver what they've they've said they will.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: the challenge is that there's a net in that 0. So the figures I showed you before were to get to the pathways we need to do to get to 0 carbon. So we don't go over our carbon budget. But this net has crept in. So the net basically

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: is this concept of negative emissions. So you, if you can't mitigate your greenhouse gases at a fast enough rate to get to absolute 0.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: You can net them off by using negative emissions technology. So the figure here really shows you

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: that concept. The kind of the area under 0 is where many countries and many modeling exercises are thinking of like we can offset continued growth in Co. 2 emissions or failure to mitigate through those negative emissions technologies?

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: And it.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: It has some merit in that

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: there are some sectors, which are incredibly difficult to mitigate. So there are not a lot of options to reduce, for example, emissions from food production.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: There will be some we will need to eat, and there will be some emissions associated with that. There are some sectors which might be trickier, or take a longer time to decarbonize than others.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: And in theory, if you could net off those emissions, so to give them more space to make that transition over time

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: that provides a good buffer.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: And so the negative emissions technologies include, and things like biomass, carbon capture and storage. Where you grow a tree. That tree has stored carbon in it. You burn it for energy, but in doing so you capture the Co. 2 emitted

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: during that combustion and store it usually in a

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: in a deep in an old oil field or in a saline aquifer

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: somewhere where it can be stored on geological time frames other technologies out there are direct air capture and storage where they're effectively filtering Co. 2 out of the air

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and storing it permanently. And it's also interest around ocean-based measures, such as alkaline alkalinization and filtering out Co. 2 from seawater as well.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: And then there's some land-based measures for use of biochar which can store carbon and helps helps soils store more carbon. So there are a range of different measures which are being proposed to deliver that

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: that net element in net 0. I think the challenge that's been pointed out is that they are quite niche, and the scale at which they can

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: stall carbon is quite small in comparison to our global emissions. So the central picture is a direct air capture site that's in operation.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: It's currently storing about 0 point 0 0 1 megatons of carbon per year. And just a very small fraction

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: of our global global emissions. And similarly,

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and the more farming land-based practices there very small as well, whereas reforestation actually has quite significant globally.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: forestation and reforestation stores a lot of carbon emissions in comparison. So

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: they use net emissions, technologies. They might be very useful in emergency, but they

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: they're not the things you rely upon to deliver

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: your major emission reductions. They are there for mopping up where you really really cannot get any lower.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So the critical mitigation actions, and

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: you will all be aware of. We've got to reduce demand and waste.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: increase, resource, efficiency, decarbonise, electricity supply, electrify heat and surface transport wherever possible, using carbon capture, storage for industrial process, emissions such as cement steel manufacturer as well as switching to more sustainable materials.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: We need to eliminate hfcs and ff. 6, and replace them with more sustainable climate and benign alternatives. Halt, deforestation, restore reforest a forest.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and also tackle reducing greenhouse gases from food. Production.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: There are many individual technologies and examples of behavioural change and practice changes within this. But these are the kind of the headline things we need to. We know, we need to do. And the technologies the know-how is out there to do it.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So the consequences of failing to mitigate.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: We're at a kind of a critical. We're in a critical decade.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: There's been lots of discussion so far about how how to mitigate. We know how to mitigate. We've just got to get on and do it, and deliver it and sustain it. However.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: depending on

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: where we go with the next 1020 years, will have different consequences to deal with. So a lot of my research now works on climate impacts and climate impact assessments. So we know the physical climate impacts associated with a warming world. So if you've got a warming climate, you have warmer land, air and oceans

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: got melting of ice and glaciers, increasing sea levels.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: changes in ocean currents, changes in hydrological cycles and more extreme weather. So you'll be familiar with those types of changes to the climate that are there.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: And despite. So we said, despite efforts so far to

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: to mitigate the current projections. Put the world, I'd say roughly, on track, for between one and a half and 2 degrees of global warming by 2050 up to 3.1 by the end of the century. If if current policies are followed and we fail to meet those Ndcs. And we don't. The countries that have pledged and become net 0 don't do that.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So if we keep, we keep on current policies, that's the picture we're looking at hopefully, we won't. But

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: every fraction of a degree counts the more quickly and urgently we can mitigate, the better. Mitigation is is more urgent than ever

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: with a caveat. To that we also need to be thinking, if you're risk averse, that

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: we need a backup plan

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: to be able to deliver net 0 in a changing climate. So making sure that our mitigation efforts are not derailed by

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: M.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Extreme weather events, all these other things that were happening.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So the main climate hazards we can you be aware of? You've got these hotter average and extreme summer temperatures. So heat waves getting hotter, more prolonged.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: higher, extreme temperatures leading to things like increased wildfire risk drought

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: on the other end of the spectrum, intense rainfall periods contributing to both surface water and river, flooding landslips, slope failures kind of get pretty catastrophic slope failures from from dams or from old spoil heaps

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: shrinks our subsidence of that combination between to dry soils to wet soils.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Wind speeds.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: This is, these are Uk changes here. The impacts are really interesting around the world. They differ a lot.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: And the Uk. We've got an increase in near surface wind speeds, particularly during winter, in increased frequency of winter storms and an increased frequency in extreme low wind events as well, so both end of the spectrums to deal with. So imagine you're a wind turbine operator. You've got to deal with that uncertainty as to when your wind turbines have to be turned off for safety reasons, because the wind speeds are too high. But also those days when it's not, it's too low

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: to to operate sea level rise.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and conversely, to that, though the reduction in snowfall frost days and heating degree days, so our winters generally will get warmer.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: But it's not just those individual climate hazards. We need to think about each of those climate impact drivers in this diagram here are borrowed from the Ipcc. Each of those climate hazards I've talked about has knock on consequences throughout the rest of the system. So

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: if we think about

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: drought and impacts on water supply increase on food impacts on food production, how that in turn interacts with people's livelihoods and their ability to sustain income if they're subsistence farming.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: contributes those drought, events and heat waves. Events can cause significant

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: health problems and increasing mortality rates knock on consequences for well-being and

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: migration and forced displacements to people who can't for whom, where they live is either going to be under the sea or where they're no longer able to make an economic living in that area.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: This map gives you all those kind of those interactions. So when we think about climate impacts, it's not just those physical

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: changes in weather that we need to be thinking about. It's all those knock on consequences across

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: across the systems and across every aspect of our daily life effectively.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So it leads us on to identifying climate risks, so

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: as part of planning for mitigation and part of planning to become more sustainable.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: In doing that, we need to also think about the climate risks and ensure those decisions are robust to future climate change.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So in terms of identifying climate risk risks are kind of defined as the or are defined as the potential for adverse consequences of a climate related, hazard on lives, livelihood, health, and well-being, ecosystems and species, and more

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: lots of lots of impacts to think about.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: And that level of risk depends on the interactions between

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: the vulnerability of that affected system. You're thinking about the exposure of it. How frequently is it going to be exposed to a particular hazard? And what that hazard is?

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: And that's really what we do. A lot in that that climate impact assessment. Looking at

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: the vulnerability of infrastructure, the vulnerability of assets of systems as well as the climate data to help us understand how regularly those systems are going to be exposed to different events

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and how they are able to to manage those.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So we think about anytime, we do an impact assessment. We think about that vulnerability.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So the vulnerability is defined by the Ipcc as the propensity to be adversely affected.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So how how bad, how badly off would a system be if it was affected by a particular hazard.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and that is embedded within, that the idea of sensitivity, susceptibility to harm and capacity to adapt so sensitivity. Here is basically the degree to which a system or species is affected

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: by a climate, by a climate hazard.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and then adaptive capacity is that ability of that system, or that individual to take action.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: to to keep them

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: safe from harm. So you think about it in the concept of a heat wave. Your sensitivity is an individual sensitivity to a heat wave

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: will be affected by your age, your health.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: whether you have any underlying health conditions, what you're doing, whether you're working outside, whether you're in an air conditioned building

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and your adaptive capacity, your ability to change your behavior

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: to cope with that hot weather? Do you have the resources to not be working outside in hot weather. Do you have the resources to stay in a building where you can keep yourself cool? Do you have access to cold water, cold showers.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: all those other things that can help you? Better be better able to manage that hot weather and those 3 concepts you apply, you can apply to any, any infrastructure, any activities, research activities, research tasks.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: And and we do this to try and understand and unpack, not just

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: where we, where people are vulnerable, but also where you can target adaptation actions to reduce vulnerability to those climate hazards, either by reducing people's sensitivity or reducing the system sensitivity, or by enhancing adaptation.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So we tend to think about

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: climate impact assessment going from thinking about the physical risks, from climate hazards to a given place or activity. So this could be a research site. It could be a piece of equipment. It could be an activity you do on that piece of equipment?

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: But we also think about risks to people.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: the occupants, the people who who are

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: conducting the research doing that activity. We think about the impacts on the power supply, the water supply. ICT material supply chains. So, for example, semiconductor materials primarily come from Taiwan, which is has had a drought for a number of years now, and it's a very water, intensive industry to be generating the semiconductors. So

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: it's

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: within your scope of control is also thinking about your key material supply chains where your rare Earth metals are coming from? Where are you getting equipment from? How is it getting there? There's lots of reliance on some key ports. If the ports are out of action due to a storm or sea level rise, then how do we get places from one to the other

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: for remote research sites. How do you access those sites? If there's a flood, and there's only one road in and one road out.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: But there's also. Finally, there's also the socioeconomic risks resulting from the hazards more widely. So we're never assessing risk in on its own theory. It is going to be happening at a time where there are going to be. That same event is happening across the world or across the country, and there will be consequences from that.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So economic disruption, political disruption, poverty, inequality exacerbated by these events happening.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: If if we think about doing those climate impacts, I've

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: reviewed many climate impact assessments. And

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and one of the challenges is climate data and getting good data to really understand where your risk lies

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and we need to move away. There's lots of research that's looked at averages of climate change, average temperatures, averages, and those averages when they're presented as global mean change daily or yearly average hide an awful lot. When you average some of these things out, they sound really quite innocuous. 1.5 degrees of change. Well, that doesn't sound too bad, slightly warmer in winter, slightly warmer in summer. It sounds really innocuous, but it's not. They really obfuscate that

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: the potential impact of the weather within that warm climate. And so

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: we need to think about more about those extreme events.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: because it's those extreme events that have the most impact. And they're not really well represented in the climate data that's often used for these impact assessments. So I'm just going to end with a few examples of that before concluding.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So when we think about global average surface temperature, the figure on the left shows you how that global average surface temperature has increased over time

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: nominately, but actually it's not increased universally around the world.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: The oceans have warmed slower than land surfaces. The northern hemisphere has been warming faster than the southern hemisphere. So even when we think about 1.5 degrees of global warming, actually, it's not that everywhere in Europe

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and in Europe and in parts of North America.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: It's it's warm. It's warmed up much faster rate than than that global average.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: And if we look at future and we look at projected temperatures that equally shows a

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: a different distribution. So the northern hemisphere, warming much faster than the quite equatorial regions and the southern hemisphere.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So this, the figure at the top is the alarming one. That's the 4 degrees worth of global warming compared to the one and a half degrees warming at the bottom of this figure.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: But there are distributions around the world that we need to be more mindful of when we think about some of these impacts.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: And then another observation is yearly precipitation. Averages are sometimes used, but a lot can happen in a year. If you're just giving, you're just being given by a climate scientist a yearly precipitation. I would want to know more, because within the same year you can have a drought and a flood, because the rainfall intensity has changed.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Similarly, we can talk about temperatures, temperatures fluctuate throughout the day.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: We have warmer temperatures in daytime, colder temperatures at night.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and when you want to understand your heat exposure when you're working during the day, or how

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: how much you need to cool down equipment or a laboratory. It's those daytime temperatures that are the peak ones that we need to be thinking about. But those daily averages hide hide that distinction.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So when, if you, if you think about assessing the risks of your experiments, your facilities, or your activities to these climate hazards, really think about that. Those

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: those ranges of exposure, and those ranges and fluctuations of things, not just averages over time.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: so I'll end there. But in summary.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: it's an emergency. Every fraction of a degree counts. Mitigation is more critical than ever, and we need to get on with it

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: rapidly now.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: But we also need to adapt and become resilient to future climate change, because

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: we're likely locked into around one and a half degrees of warming, at least, if not more.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and all the different

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: range of whether that's hidden within that statistic hidden within that one and a half degree number.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So if you're thinking about improving, the sustainability of the research element, part of that I recommend is not only decarbonizing, but it's also

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: also being resilient to that, those future physical climate habits. And to do that, we need to think beyond those averages and really think about

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: about how the variation is impacting what we're doing.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Thank you very much.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: Thank you so much, Ruth. That was really interesting, and a really great overview of all of the

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: well, the scenarios and terrifying potential that this will this

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: wicked problem will cause us if we really don't step up quite simply.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: So we now have around 15 min for questions for discussion. I already see a hand up. So I will. Let you unmute yourself, Zack, if you'd like to. And if please do ask a question.

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Zach Marshall: Thanks, Hannah. Thanks, thanks, Ruth. This was a really interesting talk, and there's a lot of really nice stuff in there. I have one very naive question.

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Zach Marshall: I think we're kind of spoiled in ha!

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Zach Marshall: By having indigo for all our meetings and certain e-groups for all our email lists, and like the Archive where all papers get posted. So it's kind of easy for me to keep track of what's going on in the community when a new recommendation comes down. If I care about it, I can get informed very quickly by one of those mechanisms.

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Zach Marshall: I have a really hard time when somebody

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Zach Marshall: like you did with averages, says, you know, this is the old way of doing things. It's a little silly. We know we can do a lot better than just taking averages

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Zach Marshall: somewhere. Someone will now come up with a recommendation, and I don't know how I can find out when that recommendation comes down, what it is how to apply it to my work.

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Zach Marshall: You know there was also the idea of

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Zach Marshall: marginal carbon cost in power terms. If I reduce my carbon consumption. What is the carbon that I saved by doing that? There's a working group on that that I know of, but I have no idea where they report. I have no idea, once the answer comes out, what happens. So how can I keep myself informed about the latest in these sorts of things that I should apply to how I think about climate change and.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: That's a good question. It depends how long you want to spend keeping yourself updated. I mean, I think the challenge is the Ipcc have regular updates, but their reports are thousands of pages long

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and realistically reading through those is is a lot

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: depending on the country you're based in.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: They will have different

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: different standards and different guidance, because for, like the Mac, the Co. 2 costs will will really differ, depending where you are in the world

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: in the Uk. The government reports and gives an annual update on the latest Co. 2 figures from various things and emission factors.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: We also have a

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: every 2 years. A climate impacts report which comes out with an with an adaptation plan.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: so I can tell you probably give you a list of places in the Uk. Very easily, but a lot of it will come down to the individual country you're based in, and where they are reporting

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: the country specific risks and hazards. Because the Ipcc I appreciate is a mammoth.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: a mammoth task to read through places like carbon brief. Noaa are always good sources

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: of information. I think that's digestible.

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Zach Marshall: Thank you.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: Brilliant. Thank you.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: So I think the next hand up was from Claire. If you'd like to unmute yourself.

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Claire Antel: Yes, Hi, thanks.

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Claire Antel: Okay, I feel like I have an even more naive question.

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Claire Antel: the. So you because you said at the end of your presentation. How you need more data on more data would be useful in different sectors and but the charts you showed were all focused on carbon dioxide.

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Claire Antel: And I was wondering what the reason? I mean, where, where's yeah. Why are there not as many studies on the other greenhouse gases? Or is it just

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Claire Antel: more worth focusing on carbon dioxide as the largest slice.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So I I have to just

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: have to confess to cheating. So the global carbon budget produced a wonderful slide pack which give you the Co 2 emissions globally over time, and they give you every year. They create an update. So the Global Carbon project are one of the major sources of information for

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: thick carbon data. That level of information on the other gases, nitrous oxide and methane, and the others is less, is harder to get hold of where it's regularly updated and regularly presented. But there are.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: There are similarly high level studies of how you decarbonize and how you reduce the greenhouse gases from agriculture. For example, there's a lot of research in that space.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: There's a lot of research in waste management, and how you reduce methane emissions from from different places. So I kind of emphasize Co 2 more, because it's

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: I'm more familiar with it, and it's more it's kind of

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: in a way, the easier gas to reduce.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: because it's embedded within our energy system and within our construction and construction sector. So steel.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: steel cement and energy kind of covers most of your Co. 2 emissions. So if you focus on reducing those, that's a really good start. But there are equally

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: lots of reports which focus on the other gases and how to reduce those.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and if you're interested in, I can send send a variety of links to those other sources.

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Claire Antel: Okay. Thanks.

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Claire Antel: Oops.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: Brilliant thanks very much.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: Sure. Actually, I think you have your hand up next.

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Shreyasi Acharya: No.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: Oh no!

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Shreyasi Acharya: Can you hear me? Hello! Can you hear me?

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: Yes, maybe speak a little louder.

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Shreyasi Acharya: No, no, no.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: Yeah, I, think it works.

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Shreyasi Acharya: Okay, yeah, thanks a lot. That was such an excellent talk. And like, super like interesting. Could you go to the slide where you had the countries which had put the laws into place, and the others which had them in their policies.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Can you hear me?

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So I'll just work out how to share again.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Is it this one.

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Shreyasi Acharya: Yeah.

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Shreyasi Acharya: Yes, the so the the so my question was, so it's mostly, I guess, Canada, Australia, and countries in Europe and Russia which have put the policies into laws

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Shreyasi Acharya: and the other countries which technically uses most of the fossil fuels that are us India, China, and I think.

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Shreyasi Acharya: Iran and Saudi, Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Saudi Arabia, which are one of the most like

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Shreyasi Acharya: biggest oil exporters. They have it in the policy not implemented yet, and some of them have just pledged it so in terms of the fact that if governments do not take it upon themselves to decarbonize the systems themselves

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Shreyasi Acharya: like realistically, what kind of chances do you think? Do we have that?

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Shreyasi Acharya: I mean, we can reach a 1.9 or 2.6 target, for example.

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Shreyasi Acharya: like the lower ones.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So if these countries don't deliver on what they pledged.

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Shreyasi Acharya: Yeah.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: I mean the from the UN Gap report. I think if we don't, if we deliver the Ndcs.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: The National defined contributions, then it's around 2 point. I should go back a slide.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: see what that was. But it's

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: is around 2.6 degrees if they got all those. So if countries don't deliver on net 0,

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: you're kind of going back up this this chart here of

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: if we just get the Ndcs

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: between 2.6 and 2.8, but even that does require effort from countries to change their current policies, to deliver on their Ndcs.

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Shreyasi Acharya: Yeah, and are like, is is it ongoing like, is it going as expected?

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: In terms of delivering on their policies.

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Shreyasi Acharya: Yeah, yeah.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So I think it depends which countries you look at. Europe is probably roughly on track.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: It's a bit of a

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: I think the current political climate is a bit of a minefield, because there's been lots of backlash against net 0 globally, it's within the Uk. And in other countries. So I think this this couple of years is going to be really critical to see what direction

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: we go in, whether there is a whole fast line to delivering that 0, or it goes off track.

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Shreyasi Acharya: Can't.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: I think it's very. It's really difficult to say. I mean, I've been working on climate mitigation

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: for a long time.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: there's been lots of talking and lots of research, but not a lot of delivery.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Aside from a few stellar countries which really are showing us how to do it. If only they could be replicated.

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Shreyasi Acharya: Yeah, thanks a lot.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: Okay, thank you. I see. Also Ali has his hand up. I also have a question, but I'll hold off.

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NA Bharmal (Durham) (he/him): Right, so it should be appearing in second. Now, Hi, thanks for the talk. It was a great overview.

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NA Bharmal (Durham) (he/him): I'm interested in

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NA Bharmal (Durham) (he/him): both sort of follow up from one of the previous questions, but also slide. You showed where the major

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NA Bharmal (Durham) (he/him): events that had a significant change in our carbon dioxide output globally were economic

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NA Bharmal (Durham) (he/him): failures for want of a better catch all term. So what do you think the possibilities are of applying legal solutions to achieve some meaningful reduction. Because I don't think practically we can. We can just have economic collapse as as our sort of pathway forward. So

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NA Bharmal (Durham) (he/him): yeah.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Yes, I think there's lots of scope for legal requirements, putting in standards, putting in targets, binding.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: binding measures, delivery mechanisms. There's lots of scope for doing that.

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NA Bharmal (Durham) (he/him): Do you think there's any scope for bringing legal action.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Oh, actually.

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NA Bharmal (Durham) (he/him): Yes.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Yeah. So I think there have been some test cases around the world where either groups have taken local authorities or local governments to court for disruption due to environmental events.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: There is Lot, I think there is lots going on in that space

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: to try and encourage countries to

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: fulfill their obligations or fulfill their targets.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So we'll see. I think we'll see in time how those pan out. But there's definitely a whole whole group of organizations which are pursuing that those legal

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: legal measures.

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NA Bharmal (Durham) (he/him): Yeah, it kind of it's it's kind of interesting. I'm sort of wondering what the levers are available for actually actioning change meaningful change.

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NA Bharmal (Durham) (he/him): and so, yeah, I was wondering if there'd been any more developments in the legal sphere.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: I'm sure there have been the ones I'm aware of have been kind of people who've

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: bought homes in floodplains where the the planning authority knew they were in a floodplain.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: They've collectively sued the local authority for giving, planning permission to build in a floodplain.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: There've been test cases of demonstrating impact on health

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: due to different activities which have been successful.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: And but I'm not up to date on whether there are any big mass actions on on climate.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: climate targets at the moment.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: But I'm sure there are. There was very much. There's a lot of talking about attribution, attribution, event, attribution. So

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: M.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Attributing particular climate events and weather events to climate change, and then suing large emitters for causing them.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: There's been a lot of interest and discussion around that space.

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NA Bharmal (Durham) (he/him): Okay, thanks. Very much.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: Brilliant. Thank you. I guess I'll ask one probably quite quick question. It was in your like pretty early slides, actually, maybe around Slide 5 you showed the difference between the consumption and the territorial emissions.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: and I was quite surprised at the huge differences between for example, China and and Europe

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: and the Us. They they had a huge difference that wasn't accounted for by, for example, the opposite trend for China.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: And my, I guess my question is, is that because a lot of smaller countries are have.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: I guess? A lot less. I see you nodding already. Yeah.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Yeah, that's exactly it. They

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: there will be the rest of the world also trading with those countries and having a deficit similar to China, where they export more than they

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: export more carbon effectively than they emit, and use themselves.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: Okay.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: I mean, maybe this is probably beyond the scope of this conference. But then, how do we? How do we change that.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: So I think a lot of

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: some of the change has come from effectively offshoring, exporting.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: Hmm.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Particular manufacturing capabilities, production capabilities, and because labour is cheap has been cheaper historically. But if we think more carefully about, do we need to like over consumption

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: is one of the big trends. Behind this we consume far more than we need, so reducing consumption in general is always going to reduce those consumption emissions and being mindful as individuals and organizations having sustainable procurement policies where we

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: procure equipment from low carbon sources, low carbon providers,

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and there's also been lots of research on kind of carbon border tax adjustments where you

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: place a carbon tax when something enters the country. But I don't think they have got

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: that far into being implemented yet, but from a from an organizational individual perspective, is about reducing consumption, and then having those sustainable procurement policies whereby you only.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: and you buy from a supplier where they can demonstrate that they have a sustainable supply chain, a low carbon supply chain.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: Hmm, yeah, that's a pretty tall order, isn't it? But okay, thank you so much.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: I guess. Yeah. With that, I think we've come to time. So once again, thank you so much. I'll encourage everyone to virtually give a round of applause to Ruth. So thank you so much. We really appreciate you spending time with us this morning or this afternoon, depending on your time zone.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: I see a lot of clapping hands in the in the zoom. So we we.

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Ruth Wood- University of Manchester: Thank you for having me.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: Thank you.

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Hannah Wakeling - STFC UKRI: Okay. So next on the agenda is Professor Katerina Vernieri, I think I.